Consturction Law (Report) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Consturction Law (Report) - Essay Example 1.3 This law stands out from the other laws because it is sensitive. In construction and contract laws, claims and counter claims are the way that the employer and the contractor understand one another. Claim that is assertion for more funds towards a project, due to extension time for completion is under application by contractual arbitrators in engineering and construction law. This is a sensitive law because it has unforeseen shortcomings which have to be prepared for in advance. In order to understand the importance of this law one has to understand the principles involved in contract and construction law. 1.4 This law causes conflicts, however, the construction industry believes in solving disputes in a medical approach. This approach involves identifying the problem in the first place, then dealing with the problem. Every construction worker knows it is their personal obligation to keep everyone happy by opening up about any conflicts. 2.1This report is necessary to help the sub-contractors to Mekeng Company avert any further accidents that could lead to loss of human life. Interrelation between the contractors, sub-contractors and the employer is important in creating a good working environment. After the investigation into the scaffolding accident, the findings prove that more employees are less equipped to deal with heights and there is danger of another accident happening unless something is under change. 2.2 Although the employer is at fault, the ignorance of the employee is also to blame in trying to deal with an area n he was not an expert. The center for occupational safety and health administration (OSHA) requires that before the employer sends the employee off to work, they have adequate training to deal with the hazards in their line of duty. It is also OSHA’s principle that certain risky jobs are for those certified and specially qualified

Gender Related Issues Essay Example for Free

Gender Related Issues Essay Complete a search for journal articles (professional) that include gender related cognitive issues. Report back to the group through the discussion forum on an understanding of the gender related cognitive abilities. Look for flaws and strengths in specific examples and applications. Thinking is a normal process in everybody’s life. The activities of the neurons giving signals to the brains are helpful in giving the body commands to act on a certain activity or to feel and even to think. Men and women think in every part of their lives, except when they are under comatose by which patients remain unconscious for over a certain time. Studies often say that men and women think very differently. Many various tests in college and even in high schools show that men are far more different in abilities in math than of women; this is also the same reason why men are more selected on job opportunities, especially to those in depth analysis. Women are often regarded as underdogs in the fields where numbers exist. An article from â€Å"Think Again† says that the old belief of the big thinking difference among men and women is a bluff. It suggests a cultural shaping wherein minds of the people are programmed to expect less from women in terms of thinking. Evidences from the article say that the shaping mentioned above is a controlling factor to the performance of many. With the psychological mind – set that men are better than women, women tend to perform and feel insecure about them and in turn would result to grades that are really degrading. The article focuses on the factors that are apparent in the 18th to the 21st centuries by which the â€Å"shaping† is already present. It could have presented or showed us factors from the time before Christ or in the Middle Ages to greatly describe the so-called cultural reasons. It could have given a proof why girls are often regarded for household chores and not with jobs that they can participate with boys. On the other hand, the article may be a helpful guide to parents and teachers to mold the children without inculcating the notion of men being superior in analyzing and solving things. The statements that tell about performances after giving the biases may be true for people around the world and should be avoided to have optimum performance in different work places. 2. Complete a search for journal articles (professional) that include gender related communication issues. . Report back to the group through the discussion forum on an understanding of gender related communication. Look for flaws and strengths in specific examples and applications. Emotions are part of a well-being. It is also a measure if a person is healthy or not. Girls tend to have more emotions than boys, or have it something to do with the misinterpretation of the crowd? As girls or women are termed to be good in emotions, they are also termed as good communicators than men. Girls are very vocal with their ideas and feelings. An article of Cynthia Burggraf Torppa says that the idea of women having an edge with communicating with other people is a misnomer. It said that men and women just don’t understand each other with the lines that they say. Also, there are terms given such as â€Å"rapport talkers† which women are experts on. Women communicate with other people that trigger emotions and feelings while men are termed â€Å"report talkers† that focus on facts and details about a certain topic. Indeed, there are differences about men and women as also stated in Men are from Mars, women are from Venus. The article mentioned can help readers understand more others. That is to say, men and women should practice listening between the lines so that misunderstandings will be avoided. Since women are really emotional, they must be sensitive also with what their men are feeling. The differences matter mostly on marriages, so I recommend that the article could have started and stated on something that happens in childhood and teenage life so that readers will also be guided when and where to hit their punch lines. Men and women must be treated equally as they are all created with the same will and love of the Lord Almighty. References Cynthia Burggraf Torppa. Gender Issues: Communication Differences in Interpersonal Relationships. 2002. Retrieved 11 April 2008 from http://ohioline. osu. edu/flm02/FS04. html. American Psychological Association. Psychology Matters. Think Again: Men and Women Share Cognitive Skills. 2006. Retrieved 11 April 2008 from http://www. psychologymatters. org/thinkagain. html

Cone Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT) to Assess Bone Density

Cone Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT) to Assess Bone Density INTRODUCTION Implantology has witnessed an explosive growth during the last few years, from a technique practiced on the fringe of acceptability to one embraced by the mainstream dentistry and dental implants have emerged as a widely accepted form of teeth replacement. Implants are bio-acceptable materials with an inherent capacity to osseointegrate into the jaw bone to support a dental prosthesis to restore adequate function and esthetics without affecting adjacent hard and soft tissue structures. The Success of any implant procedure depends on a series of patient related and procedure dependent parameters, which include general health conditions, biocompatibility of the implant material, feature of the implant surface, surgical procedure and the quality and quantity of the local bone1. Careful recording and analysis of clinical and radiological information, interdisciplinary communication and detailed planning play an important role in determining the final successful outcome. Bone density is a key factor to take into account when predicting implant stability2 Clinical studies show greater implant survival in the mandible than in the upper maxilla, due to the bone characteristics. This survival is influenced by bone quality i.e. bone density2 .The bone density is an important determining factor in implant treatment and can be assessed fairly using different imaging techniques3. The quality of bone in the proposed implant site in terms of relative proportion and density of cortical and medullary bone has frequently been assessed by using a grading scheme proposed by Lekholm and Zarb, which is applicable only to cross sectional images. This classification system has been utilized worldwide because it is easy to use without considerable investment. Misch (2008) used computed tomography (CT) to objectively classify bone density into 5 types based on Hounsfield units (HU). This method allows for a precise and objective assessment of bone quality2 Several imaging techniques are currently available for presurgical and postsurgical examination, including devices developed specifically for dental implant imaging. Computerized tomograms are one of the best available radiographs for determining the bone quality. With the advancement of radiographic technology, computed tomography (CT), as well as cone- beam computed tomography (CBCT) are increasingly being considered essential for optimal implant placement , especially in the case of complex reconstructions4 Unlike conventional two-dimensional  radiographs, techniques like CBCT offer 3-D views of the mouth, face, and jaw from any direction. The cone beam configuration is ideal for the maxillofacial region because the dimensions of the beam allow for a panoramic view, sparing patients the radiation exposure of separate scans of the maxilla and mandible5.The overall advantages of CBCT are in its high resolution, potentially lower radiation dose and reduced cost compared with standa rd Computerized Tomography2 The past two decades have seen continual efforts by manufacturers, researchers and clinicians to improve the success of implant treatment outcomes through evolution in implant designs, materials and clinical procedures6. One such aspect is co-relation of available bone density with primary implant stability. Primary implant stability denotes the stability of a dental implant immediately after placement. Implant stability can be evaluated objectively, noninvasively, and easily by the insertion torque test.7 The insertion torque measurement technique, which records the torque after the implant has been placed, provides information on the local bone quality8. A High initial stability may be an indication for immediate loading with prosthetic reconstruction. A low primary stability following implantation, can cause the implants mobility leading to failure. Bone density and implant stability are important factors for implant osseointegration, and has been widely demonstrated by several au thors3. The insertion torque measurement technique, which records the torque during implant placement, provides information on the local bone quality.1 A number of studies have shown the relationship between bone density based on CT and primary implant stability 9,10. However, there are few studies about the relationship between bone density estimated by CBCT and primary implant stability. The possibility of predicting the primary implant stability and bone quality during the pre-surgical assessment of the implant placement site may produce an implant treatment protocol with higher predictability. The bone density and Implant stability can be evaluated using CBCT and the insertion torque test which records the torque during implant placement and provides information of the local bone quality6, 8. Keeping in mind the aforesaid goals the present study was designed to compare and evaluate the relationship between the bone density estimated by CBCT and the primary implant stability of t he dental implants by measurements of the insertion torque and to determine their correlation. MATERIALS AND METHODS Twenty out- patients with missing single/ multiple teeth who visited the Department of Oral Maxillofacial Surgery, Dayananda Sagar College of Dental Sciences, Bangalore and who were suitable for implant rehabilitation were considered and taken up for the study. Patients with uncontrolled systemic/ psychiatric illness, previous history of undergoing radiotherapy or chemotherapy, pregnant patients, cases of post implant removal and implants placed in sinus lift and immediate extraction sites were excluded from the study. pre-operative assessment: Patients selected based upon the above criteria underwent a thorough clinical examination, and the details were recorded using custom-made case proforma. A written informed consent was obtained from all patients and a standardized pre-surgical and surgical protocol was followed for all the patients. Pre-operative bone density of implant sites were evaluated using cone beam computerized tomographic scans. Bone density measurements were derived using 3DiagnoSys version 4.1 Software (3DIEMME Bio imaging Technologies). 3Diagnosys ® is a diagnostic imaging, analyses and 3D simulation software, tailored for the Clinician. 3Diagnosys ® software helps to interact with the 3D-model of the Patient, which is obtained by importing TC/CBCT/RM images in DICOM format, in a simple and intuitive way. The tools included in this software are not bound to morphological reconstructions but are also able to extract from the DICOM data the densitometric values for a bone funct ional evaluation.)Pre-operative evaluation of bone height and bone width was done using Cone Beam Computed Tomographic scan and appropriate implants were selected to be placed. The bone height and width measurements were achieved using the â€Å"Carestream Dental Imaging Software v6.13.3.3 CS imaging software†(Fov-15x9cm)† .All CBCT scans were obtained using the â€Å"KODAK 9500machine† (10ma 90 Kvp, 200 micron resolution, 10.9sec exposure, 605mgy per cm2). STATISTICAL ANALYSIS The statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 16.0 software (SPSS Inc., Tokyo,Japan). Spearman’s correlation coefficient (rs) was calculated to evaluate the correlation among density values and insertion torques. A value of P RESULTS The density value ranged from 209.91 to 667.13Hu. The mean density value and insertion torque of all implants were 464.69 + 135.74 Hu and 49.0 + 8.20 respectively. There was highly significant correlation between bone density and insertion torque (rs 0.89, P DISCUSSION Over the last decade, there has been significant changes in reconstruction with dental implants. Rather than merely focusing on the tooth or teeth to be replaced, today’s implant practitioner considers a broad and complex set of interwoven factors before formulating an implant treatment plan4. Proper treatment planning comprises of pre – operative depiction and quantification of accurate bone height and contour which can be established by radiographic examination.11 The success of dental implants relies heavily on both the quality and the quantity of available bone for implant placement3. Studies have shown higher failure rates for implants placed in bone of poor quality and quantity.3 Bone density is a key factor to take into account when predicting implant stability2 Clinical studies show greater implant survival in the mandible than in the upper maxilla, due to the bone characteristics. This survival is influenced by bone quality i.e. bone density2 The bone density is an important determining factor in implant treatment and can be assessed fairly using different imaging techniques5. The quality of bone in the proposed implant site in terms of relative proportion and density of cortical and medullary bone has frequently been assessed by using a grading scheme proposed by Lekholm and Zarb, which is applicable only to cross sectional images. This classification system has been utilized worldwide because it is easy to use without considerable investment. Misch (2008) used computed tomography (CT) to objectively classify bone density into 5 types based on Hounsfield units (HU). This method allows for a precise and objective assessment of bone quality3 Several imaging techniques are currently available for presurgical and postsurgical examination, including devices developed specifically for dental implant imaging.12 They are used to visualize the internal anatomy of the jaws in 3-dimensional perspectives, including the proximity of  nasal fossae, neurovascular bundles, pneumatization of the maxillae, soft tissue morphology and bone quality. Computerized tomograms are one of the best available radiographs for determining the bone quality. Periapical and panoramic radiographs are the least viable options as the subtle changes between the different bone types can’t be quantified using them, also the lateral cortical plates tend to obscure the trabecular density . With the advancement of radiographic technology, computed tomography (CT), as well as cone- beam computed tomography (CBCT) are increasingly being considered essential for optimal implant placement , especially in the case of complex reconstructions 13. Unlike conve ntional two-dimensional radiographs, techniques like CBCT offer 3-D views of the mouth, face, and jaw from any direction.1 The cone beam configuration is ideal for the maxillofacial region because the dimensions of the beam allow for a panoramic view, sparing patients the radiation exposure of separate scans of the maxilla and mandible14. The overall advantages of CBCT are in its high resolution, potentially lower radiation dose and reduced cost compared with standard Computerized Tomography15 The past two decades have seen continual efforts by manufacturers, researchers and clinicians to improve the success of implant treatment outcomes through evolution in implant designs, materials and clinical procedures2. One such aspect is co-relation of available bone density with primary implant stability. Primary implant stability refers to the stability of a dental implant immediately after implantation. Implant stability can be evaluated objectively, noninvasively, and easily by the insertion torque test.16 The insertion torque measurement technique, which records the torque after the implant has been placed, provides information on the local bone quality. High initial stabilization may be an indication for immediate loading with prosthetic reconstruction. If primary stability is not high enough following implantation, the implants mobility is high and can cause failure. A number of devices and techniques have been developed to assess implant stability, including cutting torque resistance analysis, the reverse torque test, the insertion torque test, the mobility measurement test, and resonance frequency (RF) analysis2. Implant stability can be evaluated objectively, noninvasively, and easily by the insertion torque test and RF analysis.17 The insertion torque measurement technique, which records the torque during implant placement, provides information on the local bone quality1. A number of studies have shown the relationship between bone density based on CT and primary implant stability .9,10However, there are few studies about the relationship between bone density estimated by CBCT and primary implant stability.In a study conducted by Isoda k et al; The bone quality evaluated by specific CBCT showed a high correlation with the primary stability of the implants.8 CBCT is one of the significant imaging modalities that can be used to assess the relat ionship between primary implant stability and bone density which can further give an insight into the prognosis of the implant treatment. Implant stability can be evaluated objectively, non-invasively and easily by using the insertion torque test which records the torque during implant placement and provides information of the local bone quality 1. Keeping in mind the aforesaid goals the present study was designed to compare and evaluate the relationship between the bone density estimated by CBCT and the primary implant stability of the dental implants by measurements of the insertion torque. It also aims to determine the correlation between bone density and primary stability of implant by insertion torque value. In all cases Implants were placed under local anesthesia. Different implant systems were used and all were root form implants. Surgical preparation and isolation of surgical field was accomplished according to standard operative protocols. A Crestal incision was placed and Mucoperiosteal flap was reflected and alveolar bone was exposed, and the implant placement site was identified by the marking made with the aid of the surgical probe. Osteotomy site preparation was done with a Reduction gear hand piece (1:16/64) with an external Irrigation attached to the handpiece. Implant osteotomy was performed using standard sequential drill bits as per the dimensions of the implant. The osteotomy was proceeded till the desired depth as per the selected implants. The Implant was driven into the osteotomy site using the manual torque wrench till the final depth was reached. All Implants placed were of tapered design and their lengths ranging from 8 to 16 mm and diameters from 3-5 mm. After placi ng the implant, the implant stability was measured manually using the insertion torque test by a torque wrench with calibrations .The insertion torque reading was measured and recorded at the maximum torque resistance achieved. The cover screw over the implant was then placed and Flap closure was done. Post-operative OPG and IOPA was taken. Routine Antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs were prescribed along with oral hygiene maintenance instructions. Patients were recalled for regular follow ups. Permanent prosthesis was given after 3 months. SUMMARY CONCLUSION The study assessed the bone quality with density values obtained by cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) pre-operatively and determined their correlation with the insertion torque values recorded during the Implant placement procedure.From the observations and results obtained ,We can conclude that, the present study demonstrates the relationship between the bone density values derived from Cone Beam computerized tomography (Hu), located in the maxilla and mandible , and bone quality according to the Lekholm Zarb classification. The primary implant stability measured with the insertion torque test (ITV) depends on bone density values, bone quality and implant location. Implants Placed in location with higher bone density have more stability, and we can probably predict the implant insertion torque based on the bone density values (Hu) and the implant location. Finally, with higher bone density values (Hu) and higher primary implant stability measured in ITV values; Hounsfield units can be used as a diagnostic parameter to predict possible implant stability. The results of our study indicate that CBCT can be used to assess the bone quality. Also attaining a good insertion torque and thereby enhancing the implant stability aids successful osseointegration and prosthetic rehabilitation. Hence CBCT can be used as a predictor diagnostic tool for implant success. We suggest that a larger number of patients with a larger follow up might help a conclusive determining factor that pre-operative CBCT is a predictor for primary implant stability.

Duffys Feelings in War Photographer and Stealing :: Carol Ann Duffy War Photographer Stealing Essays

Duffy's Feelings in War Photographer and Stealing Explain how Carol Ann Duffy conveys her feelings towards the subjects of the two poems War Photographer and Stealing. 'War Photographer' and 'Stealing' by Carol Ann Duffy are both poems about outsiders. She often uses dramatic monologues when writing poems, and 'Stealing' is an effective example. 'War Photographer' was written after Duffy had a conversation with a war photographer named Don McCullin. I believe that he must have inspired her to write this laudable poem. 'Stealing' too is based on a true event. When Duffy lived in Wimbledon her neighbours snowman was stolen. The setting of this poem is established on the first line; this being in a 'dark room' where 'he is finally alone'. Because the setting is away from the action of the war, it describes the results indirectly so that it is less graphic, whereas 'Stealing' explores the psychology of an anonymous outsider with anti-social behaviour and feelings. Like 'War Photographer', 'Stealing' is about someone who is isolated from society and shows evidence of being distressed. However, in this poem, the narrator is the character and he is angry and resentful. In both of the poems she uses the expressions and speech rhythms of an everyday conversation. 'Stealing' starts with a question, 'The most unusual thing I ever stole?', which I think, makes the poem more interesting and intriguing for the readers as well as making it more conversational. The question is then answered with 'A snowman'. This is quite a shocking and unusual thing to steal and I believe this will grab the reader's interest. By making the poem more conversational, it makes it more personal and gets us more intrigued and makes us think about the unusual question at the start of the poem. This is effective as it makes the poem feel more realistic to the readers and conveys her feelings to the poem in a more personal manner. Both of the poems are about anonymous people. In 'War Photographer' the main character is identified as a man. Duffy portrays this man as an outsider. She refers to him as a 'priest preparing to intone a mass'. 'All flesh is grass' is another effective example of religious imagery. I believe it means that there was so much death where he was photographing that the grass was covered in bodies. It is also linked to the Bible as it is said to mean 'walking on death'. The use of religion in this poem has a strong link to Duffy as she is said to be a Catholic. This makes the poem more personal as it shows that

Countries at Low Levels of Development Face Such Huge Challenges That They Cannot Hope to Address Them Without the Assistance of the Rest of the World

Darfur: International Conflict |Location of Darfur: Dafur is a desert region in the far west of northern Sudan. Sudan is the largest country in Africa. It borders the Red Sea and 9 other African nations. | |Brief background: The population is 42. 2 million, capital city is Kartoum, life expectancy of 56 yrs for males and 60 years for females. The GNI per capita is US $1,130. Population of about 6 million | |people. The North/south civil war lasted for 2 decades before the Dafur crisis killed over 2 million people. Decades of fighting have left Sudan's infrastructure devastated.Arabic is the offical | |language of Sudan, and Islam is the religion of the state. Large non- Arabic speaking and non-muslim population which has rejected attempts by the government to impose Islamic Sharia law on the country | |as a whole. | | |Economic |Social |Environmental |Political | |Causes of |The African rebel groups (SLA and JEM) |Refugees from Darfur say air raids by |Dafur- which means land of the Fur, many |Fighting in Dafur started in early 2003.The Sudan | |conflict: |wanted greater representation for their |government aircrafts were followed by attacks |years of tension over land and grazing rights|Liberation Army (SLA) and Justice Equality Movement (| | |communities in the Arab-dominated national|from Janjaweed, who would ride into villages on|between nomadic Arabs, and farmers from the |JEM) began attacking government targets, accusing | | |government and wanted increased funding |horses and camels, slaughtering men, raping |Fur. Khartoum of oppressing black Africans in favour of | | |for Darfur schools, hospitals, public |women and stealing. |long history of cooperation between Darfur |Arabs. | | |services and a share of Sudan's oil | |Arabs and Africans The main conflicts have |Pro-government Arab militias are accused of | | |revenue. | been over access to water and farmland. |campaigning ethnic cleansing against non-Arab groups. | | | | |Droughts in 1984 intensified struggles over |President Bashir took power in June 1989 in a | | | | |resources. military coup against the elected government | | | | | | | |Impact of |Sudan has large areas of cultivable land, |UN estimate more than 2. 7 million people fled |Janjaweed have campaigned to drive African |In March 2009, the International Criminal Court | |conflict: |gold and cotton.Its oil reserves are ripe|their homes ( refugees) and more than 300 000 |farmers off fertile lands in Darfur, have |issued an arrest warrant for President Omar al- | | |for exploitation. The conflict has held |have been killed in the conflict from a |burned African villages and deliberately |Bashir, on the charges of war in Dafur. | | |back economic progress. |combined effect of war, famine and disease. |contaminated water sources. For years after independence, all Dafuris- Arabs and | | | |Some human rights groups have said genocide is | |Africans alike- tended to view the Sudanese | | | |taking place- UN investigations in 2005 | |government in Khartoum as corrupt and biased towards | | | |concluded that war crimes had been committed | |Darfur. | | |but there had been no intent to commit | | | | | |genocide. | | | |International impacts: Strained relations with neighbouring Chad to the west.Both countries accuse |Conflict resolution: President Bashir won re-election in 2000. The opposition boycotted the poll, | |each other of supporting each other's rebel groups. Dafur conflict could lead to a wider, regional war. |accusing him of vote-rigging. | |There are over 200 000 refugees in Chad, many camped along the 600 km stretch of corder and who remain | | |vulnerable to attack. Political: After the UK ( colonial rulers until 1956) introduced democratic councils, there was | |The implications of ongoing violence could further destabilise the region and this could have a knock |competition between Darfur Arabs and Africans for political offices. After independence, this | |on effect on the world's oi l supply for countries such as the US, who are attempting to reduce their |competition increased and Darfur Arabs sought to undo centuries of African dominance in Darfur | |independence on oil from the Middle East. |government. | | | | | | |Other information: | | | | | |Location of Afghanistan: Landlocked mountainous sovereign state forming part of South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and the east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the| |north, and China in the far northeast. | |Brief background: | | | | | |Economic |Social |Environmental |Political | |Causes of conflict: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Impact of conflict: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |International impacts: |Conflict resolution: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Other information: | | | | | Afghanistan: International Conflict

Philosopher’s Argument from Contingency

The Argument from Contingency in the world of Philosophy falls from asking the question â€Å"is the Universe Contingent?†Ã‚   But how can we say that the universe does appear to be contingent?In layman’s term, contingent means when a particular thing exists for the basic reason of chance and possibilities. Some things are created and formulated by people for the necessity’s sake. It can or can not exist.However in philosophy, contingent things are being categorize exclusively from the creation of people, planet, galaxy and the universe as a whole where humans can not possibly create them. Contingent things are caused to exist by something or someone else. Something must have produced them. The argument from contingency is used by some philosophers as an attempt to discuss and prove the existence of God.In philosophy, the argument of contingency is correlated to the existence of God and whether the existence of the universe is caused by God. There are three premi ses in this argument.First premise says that everything exists has an explanation of its existence either in the necessity of its own nature or in an external cause. Relating to the first premise, the universe then has an explanation of its existence and that reason is God. Therefore the explanation of the universe’s existence is God which means God exists (William 2007).Philosophy also started from the journey of seeking whether the existence of the Universe had a beginning or a caused. In Aquinas attempt to explain the existence of God, he formulated the Quinque viae or five proofs for the existence of God.The basic premise of these five arguments is that something caused the universe to exist. One of the arguments created that will be discussed on this paper is the argument from contingency. In this argument, it simply says that the world must have a beginning and God is the first cause so He therefore exists. Ordinary people who have weak foundation and curiosity when it comes to faith may just easily believe in this kind of conclusion.However thinkers and believers will definitely see flaws from this argument which allotted some philosophers to discuss and dig deeper the concept of this argument. In the end, it was concluded by some philosophers that the argument from contingency is invalid proof for God’s existence.To better understand the Argument from Contingency of Aquinas, it is important to critically discuss it. Aquinas observed that in nature there are things whose existence is contingent, it can or can not exist. Since it is possible for such things not to exist, there must be some time at which such things did not in fact exist.Thus, on probabilistic grounds, there must have been a time when nothing existed. If that is so, there would exist nothing that could bring anything into existence. Thus contingent beings are insufficient to account for the existence of contingent beings, meaning there must exist a Necessary Being for which it is impossible not to exist, and from which the existence of all contingent beings is derived (Argument from Contingency†).In general, the first cause in this argument should not require a cause since the chain of cause and effects can not be of infinite length. Therefore, there must be a cause which is God that doesn’t necessarily have to be an effect.Hume treatment on the argument from the contingency is reflected on his â€Å"Dialogue Concerning Natural Religion, Part IX† through the dialogue of Demea and Cleanthes. Hume contended that when we speak of cause we mean an explanation for an event. If that is so, surely at best it remains an assumption that every event must have a cause; for no one has ever provided explanations for every event that has occurred (Tobin 2000).  Hume claimed that even if it can be proved that a necessary being existed, it still fell short of showing that God as traditionally conceived and described existed. All it shows is that there is a necessary being of some sort. Why, Hume asked, couldn’t the universe itself be the necessary being that the argument seeks to demonstrate? (â€Å"An Argument for the Contingency of the Universe†).The idea of Kant about the caused or the existence of God can be explored too. Kant pointed out that the principle of there being a cause for every event applies, especially the existence of the universe, is only known to us through the world of our sense experience. People are not even sure whether the rational way of humans’ thinking actually has reached the origins of causes and explanations. What we assume to be the first cause may just as well be due to our ignorance of the cause and explanation for it (Tobin 2000).In other words, even great thinkers can not be sure whether their sense of experience and reason already reach the idea of the caused. For Kant and Hume, the argument from Contingency is obviously invalid to prove the existence of God.Philosop her Samuel Clarke also had a version related to argument from Contingency of Aquinas. There are three premises in Samuel Clarke’s version of the cosmological argument.Clarke states that every being that exists or ever did exist is either a dependent being or a self- existent being. Like the argument from contingency, Clarke also believes that not every being can be a dependent being. Therefore, there must exist a self existent being that may or may have a cause. God exists according to Clarke but He exists as an independent being that has no cause.F.C. Copleston and Bertrand Russell’s debate on the existence of a ‘cause’ is one of the most famous and substantial argument from contingency in the contemporary world.Their debate about God’s existence in 1948 is the most enduring version and analysis about the existence of God. Copleston argues on behalf of the existence of God by reviewing and reweaving Aquinas’ argument of contingency.Russell o n the other hand gave three principal objections to the argument of contingency namely: the unreality of modality, the unreality of causation and the unreality of the world as a totality (Koons, 2000).F.C. Copleston starts out by saying that all beings and circumstances are contingent. These contingent beings must have a beginning and this beginning exists and is necessary for the existence of all other contingent beings. Copleston says, â€Å"Something does exist; therefore, there must be something which accounts for this fact, a being which is outside the series of contingent beings.†It means that contingent beings do not have a reason to exist without some beginning.   This leads to the concept of God being there who exist for the universe’s existence. In the debate, he also says that He is His own sufficient reason; and he is not a cause for Himself.Only contingent beings needs a cause but God as not contingent doesn’t need a cause. Copleston also conclude d that the existence of God is the only rational explanation to the people’s moral order of thinking. Thus, a person who loves goodness and who acknowledges moral rightness loves and acknowledges God (â€Å"A Debate on the Argument from Contingency 1948†).Bertrand Russell on the other hand, opposes Copleston on his view of the existence of God. He states that he does not agree with the suggestion of the word contingent and said it is a useless word unless it will be deeply analyzed.So the concept of a necessary being is even more senseless to him. He also does not think that the word universe has any in depth meaning of its own. Russell’s strongly claims that there is no overall cause for the things of this world just like the whole human race cannot have one mother.Russell’s overall claim as oppose to the argument from contingency is that â€Å"there is no overall cause for the things of this world. He claims that there is no overall reason or cause for the existence of the universe. The world exists in its own sake and its just there and no particular meaning or purpose of its own. In answering Copleston idea of moral code imposed to human beings, Russell said that the human judgment of right and wrong is just brought about by experience.Classic and contemporary philosophers gave different point of views on the Aquinas’s argument from contingency but until now despite the liberation of thoughts, no great thinker can fully prove the existence of God.One, either believer or non believer, will always ask the question if God exists where did God came from. This is the Kant’s idea that something beyond the universe can not be fully grasp by any kind of human thinking. As long as God does not revealed Himself personally and literally in this world, there will always be agnostic and sceptics about His existence.Works Cited Page:Craig, William. Subject 2007: Argument from Contingency. Reasonable Faithwith William Lane Craig .http://www.reasonablefaith.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=5847Tobin Paul 2000, Thomas Aquinas and the Five Ways. The Rejection of  Pascal's Wager, A Skeptics Guide to Chistianityhttp://www.geocities.com/paulntobin/aquinas.html#2wayâ€Å"An Argument for the Contingency of the Universe† 2007. Undetached Rabbit  Parts. Western Michigan University. 2007http://wmuphilosophy.blogspot.com/â€Å"Argument from Contingency†. Encyclopedia.http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Argument- from-contingency#The_argument_from_contingencyTeuberr, Andreas 2008. â€Å"Four of Aquinas' Five Ways and Samuel Clarke'sVersion†. Cosmological Argument. Brandeis University. The President and Fellows of Harvard College.http://people.brandeis.edu/~teuber/philcosmo.htmlKoons, Robert 2000. Defeasible Reasoning, Special Pleading and the  Cosmological Argument. University of Texas.http://www.arn.org/docs/koons/rk_defeasible.htmâ€Å"A Debate on the Argument from Contingency of Fat her F.C. Copleston andBertrand Russell† 1948. Third Program of the British Broadcasting Corporation.http://www.catholicapologetics.info/catholicteaching/philosophy/conting.htm